Hi, welcome back. Make yourself comfortable.

So in this segment today, we're going to

do a deep dive into a particular historical episode.

I've done a little bit of this sort of thing before in some other presentations.

Remember I did kind of a zoom-in on what happened

with the fate of North America in the early 1800s,

and I did another zoom-in when we were looking

at some of the ingredients of the Industrial Revolution.

Steam engines, electricity,

evolution. Things like that.

This time, I want to do a zoom-in on an imperialiam story.

I think you're going to find this interesting if

you'll stick with it, because it's a suspense thriller.

There's a life at stake.

Which life? The life of China.

The whole future of China is at stake.

So, it's actually kind of a pretty big story in world history.

You remember what happened

to Africa in that last presentation?

How Africa was carved up in the 1880s and 1890s?

Well, that's just about happened to China around 1900.

How China avoided this fate is the subject

of our little dive into the workings of imperialism.

And through this one case study, I think you'll

also get a feel of the world of 1900.

All right.

Let's take a look.

So let's set the scene here as to why China is in the balance.

When we last talked about China and Japan, remember we talked about

the choices that those countries made to try to build themselves up.

In China, we called it Self-Strengthening in the 1860s and 1870s.

In Japan, you saw the choices that the Meiji Emperor makes

to build Japan into a powerful nation state, borrowing a lot of

ideas from western countries, but still remaining distinctively Japanese.

Okay.

So, China and Japan are on these paths to build themselves up.

The key event in the 1890s is that the

two countries test their new found strength against each other.

There's a war between China and Japan.

The particular issues aren't as important now, although they're

a bit disturbingly reminiscent of some things in today's

headlines in 2012 and 2013. But, back to the 1890s.

The war breaks out in 1894. It's over by 1895.

The Japanese have won.

Here are a couple of Japanese illustrations

in which they show you their victory.

Here the Japanese are using a modern searchlight

to point out a Chinese ship and bring their

artillery to bear to destroy it.

[SOUND]

Here you see the Japanese soldiers engaged in pitched

battle with the Chinese forces off to the right.

Notice from this illustration the kind of westernized look the Japanese forces have.

The Chinese forces still have a more traditional look.

In a way, the Japanese won because they were more modern, more disciplined,

more efficient in their use of some of the modern technology of war.

The crisis really showed up some of the

underlying weaknesses that remained in the Qing Empire.

It's aging, decadent quality, dominated by the Dowager Empress, who

had been the concubine of the emperor who had died in 1861.

A new young emperor takes charge, and in 1898, reacting to

China's military defeat, he tries to embark on a remarkable program

of reform. The Dowager Empress stamps it out.

Indeed, that emperor dies mysteriously soon afterwards,

and his advisers who'd helped him with the reform program, with

names like Kang Youwei, flee for their lives to places like Japan.

So that's the situation in 1898. China's been beaten in war with Japan;

it's staggering.

The Japanese, meanwhile, then make territorial

claims on the Chinese mainland to back up their victory in the war.

The Japanese claim sets off a great power

scramble, in which everyone starts to assert their claims.

All right, so now let's step back and set the scene for what's

going on with the great powers in Asia as we get into 1898-1899.

Take a look at this map. This map focuses on Southeast Asia.

You'll see that not only are the Dutch

East Indies now more firmly under Dutch control.

You'll also see that most of the

independent states of Southeast Asia are gone.

The British have moved into Burma over here.

The French have firmly established a colony in French Indochina here.

Siam,

right here, retains a precarious independence.

The Germans have been moving into the Pacific, too.

The Americans have just fought a war with Spain.

Somewhat surprisingly to everyone involved, has the result of

the Philippine Islands becoming a colony of the Unites States.

Something that no one had really foreseen when the Spanish American War began,

which was a war fought over Cuba.

But the Americans ended up defeating a Spanish fleet here

in Manila Bay.

The Americans found themselves as the power on the spot.

And so then the Americans had basically three choices in the fall of 1898.

Just think about their choices for a second.

One, give the islands back to the Spanish.

Well, that didn't quite seem like the right thing to do.

Two, just give the island to the Filipinos. There was a tiny independence movement and

a few people who were organizing around Manila.

Just say, you guys try to take control of the whole country,

good luck, and have our blessing.

a) the Americans were pessimistic about whether the Filipinos could pull it off

and thought the islands might revert to some sort of

anarchic

disorder.

Or b) and probably more likely, they thought the Filipinos won't be able to

keep it because the Germans and the

Japanese are circling the islands like vultures,

and as soon as they see that the Philippines

are basically open season, one of them will take it.

Turns out, as you can see right over here, the Germans take

the Palau Islands in 1899, the Caroline Islands go to Germany in 1899.

The Germans

have been quarrelling with the Americans and

others about other islands in the Pacific, too.

And a German naval squadron was literally

sitting out in Manila Bay watching the Americans.

And the Japanese were expressing polite interest.

The third option was the Americans just kind of

keep it and try to make the best of it.

And, console themselves with thought that, hey, we're becoming an empire too.

A little later than the others, but we're

joining the race.

That's what the British urged the Americans to do, and finally

the American government decides to do that in the fall of 1898.

Turns out to be very controversial in the United States.

There's a huge fight over it for lots of understandable reasons.

Congress barely decides to approve McKinley's decision,

President McKinley's decision, to take the islands.

And believe me, within a few years the American

elite deeply regretted that they had taken them.

Anyway, the point is by 1899-1900, where our story for the future of China

begins, the Americans have now turned the Philippine Islands into their colony.

As a result of the Sino-Japanese War, the island of Taiwan

has turned from being a Chinese possession into being a Japanese possession.

Now let's focus back on the geography of China itself.

So here's a wonderful map of the world.

This is actually produced in London in the year 1900.

So it pretty much gives you a sense of how the world looked to people at the time.

So let's zoom-in right over here. So, let's take a look at this region.

In a way, it's useful to remember about China.

Most of the wealth producing parts of China are in the eastern half,

down south, by what was then called Canton and the British colony of Hong Kong.

Up here, in the Yangtze River Valley, opening up at Shanghai and

Nanking,

now called

Nanjing.

The Yellow River Valley and, of course, Peking,

leading to the port at Tientsin, and then this emerging

industrial area of Manchuria, where there were very significant coal deposits.

And in the 1800s, coal was the coin of industrial progress.

The reason I spent some time on this is I want you

to understand that almost all of the arguments over the next few years

will turn on who controls this region right in here.

Who controls this area that controls all of the maritime outlets?

Places like Port Arthur at the end of the Liaodong Peninsula.

Places like Kiao-chau on the Shandong Peninsula.

So what happens is: the Japanese make their

claim to get a lot of this territory.

The Japanese are fended off by the great powers and

console themselves with some lesser gains.

The Germans then say, we're going to

expand our holdings here in the Tsingtao region.

By the way, if you've ever seen

Tsingtao beer in a Chinese restaurant, German brewers.

So, the British then respond to that in

1898 saying: well, if you're going to establish a territorial claim here,

we, the British, are going to take Wei-hai-wei, right up here.

Well, now we're off to the races,

because the Russians are expanding their sphere of influence,

to the point that by 1898 and on into 1899,

it looks like the scramble for China, with the

French starting to make their arguments, the Japanese still pushing,

looks like it's well under way.

Here's the Russian Empire in 1795. Now let's add to that, Russian

acquisitions in the first half of the 19th century, up to about 1855.

Central Asia, some here in Europe, they jump the Pacific Straits into

Alaska and were working their way down that side of the North Pacific.

But then they sell off Alaska to the United States in 1867.

But in the second half of the

1800s, more and more, the Russians are then thinking

about: how do we access the whole Pacific world?

So look at what's happening in this region in the second half of the 1800s.

Yes, more expansion in central Asia, but especially

important expansion here, in this region right here.

Why? Look at this railway.

This is the Trans-Siberian Railway.

It's the connection between the European part

of the Russian Empire and its Asiatic domains.

Most of the population settlements are near this line.

It's making its way to the valuable mineral

deposits of Manchuria, but also to access to

warm water, ice-free ports, as you work your

way down here towards the Sea of Japan.

That's Russia's outlook

point to the whole Pacific World.

And now, just to give you a little more of a sense of the geography

using a contemporary map, here's that Vladivostokâ

port, that outlet to the Sea of Japan.

But you see how, in the wintertime, that can be pretty precarious, too,

a lot of ice in that region, a lot of ice here, and here.

From a Russian perspective, this peninsula is

very important, and so is that port right

there, Port Arthur.

As the Russians try to expand their sphere of

influence in Manchuria, they're running up against the Japanese,

who are trying to expand their influence in

Korea, a historic tributary of the Chinese Empire.

And the Japanese also looking at the

wealth of Manchuria and worrying about Russian expansion.

While, meanwhile, the British have set themselves

up here, the German's have set themselves up here.

And there's more coming.

The world knows China matters.

Even in 1899, China is the most populous country on Earth.

Its fate is going to be pivotal in world history.

So the question then on a lot of

people's minds were: what now should happen to China?

Well, first of all, you'd want to hear what the Chinese think about it.

Let's take

a look at that.

What would be some of the Chinese answers

to this question of how they protect their future?

Well, first of all, they might turn to the traditional

answer of, let's just build up our strength some more.

But having crushed their own reform movement in 1898, having just

lost the war with Japan, this is looking like a struggle.

It's a situation of imperial decay.

Or they could use their time-honored strategy of hoping to

avoid being gobbled up by playing the barbarians against each other.

Digging even further into the question, let's not

just generalize about what do the Chinese think.

Which Chinese are we really talking about here?

Well one group of Chinese, of course, would be the people running the empire.

Those would be the people in the Manchu court.

Well that would be led,

of course, by the Dowager Empress.

Just to give you a sense of the Dowager Empress, here's kind

of a formal court photograph of the Dowager Empress, taken around this time.

A lot older now then when she was the young concubine

of the emperor, surrounded by some of the ladies of the court.

Here's another photograph which shows you a somewhat more

intimate and personal view that might give you another sense

of her.

She's aided, of course, by senior advisors like

Li Hongzhang, who had been around since the 1860s.

Some of the other foreigners believe that the Li

Hongzhang was making his own deal with the foreigners,

And, in particular, that he was being massively paid off by the Russians.

But Li Hongzhang is still now aging imperial advisor.

So, those are some of the views at court.

But it's not just the nobles of court who are important.

Because of the weakness of the empire, some of the

other nobles around the realm are forming partnerships of their own.

You could take, for example, a group of

nobles whom westerners might call the Yangtze viceroys.

In effect, deputies for the empire, ruling portions of

the Yangtze Valley.

And therefore, forming partnerships and arrangements with the influential

foreign powers in that valley, above all the British.

There would also be influential military chieftains.

Like, for example, the promising Chinese General Yuan Shikai.

Here's a picture of Yuan Shikai around this

Time, in the uniform of the Imperial Army.

Westerners would, of course, be hearing other Chinese

voices, such as those who would hope to reform the imperial court.

Such as the reformers that had hoped to change the empire from within.

And then there are revolutionaries who've given up on the empire and

believe the empire needs to be overthrown and replaced with a republic.

So there are a number of Chinese who believe that the empire cannot be saved.

For example, one of them, probably the most

well known to us today, is this man, Sun

Yat-sen.

By the way, you notice, he's not wearing the queue,

no head shaved here,

in Western Garb.

Sun Yat-sen comes from the southern part of China.

He'd spent time getting a Western education.

He'd come to be a believer in forming a Chinese Republic.

The Chinese Empire had tried to capture him,

chase him down, and bring him back for execution.

At one point, actually had kidnapped

him in London, and he was just barely able to be saved with Western intervention.

But Sun Yat-sen has survived, and he's an important dissident voice.

So in other words, you've got a number of Chinese voices, but perhaps no one

clear message over what should be done to answer the problem of how to save China.

And you'll notice that all of these different Chinese

factions will be looking for allies among the influential foreigners.

So, now let's take a look at how foreigners would

have answered the question of what should be done with China.

And don't just over-simplify this into thinking, well,

of course, they would all like to devour China.

Complicated question really.

In part because one foreigner, the British might worry that it will

be the Russians who will end up getting most of the meal.

And the British won't get enough.

So there's rivalry between

the foreigners, as well as their greed and interest in China.

So there are a number of different answers.

To put this in terms of a policymaker, there are different policy options.

Let's examine what the menu of policy options would have been if you

were among the foreigners contemplating the future of China in 1899 and 1900.

Okay, answer number one:

Careful, deliberate expansion.

This probably would be the dominant answer you would've heard from the Russians.

From this point of view, what would you do if you wanted deliberate expansion?

You'd form a political partnership with influential Chinese, who are giving

up on the empire and were willing to work with you.

You'd want to be sure you had military dominance.

That is, troops on the ground, in or around Chinese territory.

You'd want

effective control of the key infrastructure, the

ports, the railroads; that's what really matters.

You'd want effective control of the public finances,

for example, loan the Chinese government a lot

of money and then demand conditions for repayment

that will effectively give you that kind of control.

And, of course, you'll oppose any intervention in China by other foreigners,

because you don't want to do anything to give up the inside track.

All right, that's one policy option. Let's take a look at another.

Another answer might be what I call the Passive Open Door.

This would be the policy that I would ascribe to the British Government.

Commercial access for all, everybody should be allowed to trade.

And, of course, in order to be able to trade, you need to protect the

security of your people who are on the ground doing the trading and their assets,

their property.

So, extraterritoriality, those sorts of protections.

On the issue of foreign expansion into

China, you're not necessarily opposed to It;

you don't necessarily want to join into it; you

just want to make sure you're not disadvantaged by it.

That's why I call this more of a Passive Open Door policy.

It's really the kind of policy in which the British Government is resigned

to the fact that the Qing Empire is dying.

In fact, the prime minister, Lord Salisbury, gave a

really extraordinary speech, in which he simply announced at the

end of the 1890s, somewhat sadly, that there were living

nations in the world and dying nations in the world,

and a great problem of international politics was going to be what

to do about the dying nations and what they were going to leave behind.

A different kind of policy choice is this option, an Active Open Door policy.

An Active Open Door policy, I'd associate mainly with the United States of America

and especially with its senior statesman,

President McKinley's Secretary of State, John Hay.

Here's a photograph of John Hay.

Still close to the British, he'd been the Ambassador in London.

But he disagreed with the British

on some of the particulars of an Open Door approach.

He was influenced, for example, by his key aid, a man named Rockhill,

who was devoted to Chinese culture and literature

and thought the Chinese needed to have an independent future.

So if you believed in an Active Open

Door policy, of course you'd want commercial access.

Of course, you'd want security for your people and your property.

But you would actively oppose expansion by other countries.

You'd utter phrases like: we'd support, quote,

the territorial integrity of China, close quote.

In other words, part of your policy would actually be

to try to help China get more independent and stronger.

Now from the American point of view this makes sense because if this

becomes an all-out imperial grab, the Americans aren't going to win the race.

They're not in the position, nor they do have the appetite, to

project power in the way the British or

the Russians or the Japanese would project it.

So any scenario in which the British, Russians, and Japanese

carve up China, the Americans are going to be pushed out.

So if you want to maintain open commercial

access, it's both in your enlightened interest and

your self-interest to actually try to keep China

from being carved up by the stronger imperial powers.

Now of course, your strategy might not succeed.

So if you supported an active, more pro-Chinese Open Door

policy, you'd still have to have a hedge in the background,

just in case your policy failed at least you'd

be able to have your own foothold in the place.

The fourth basic policy choice you could look at

if you were a foreign power, and this might

be view of countries as diverse as say, Germany,

or maybe even France, would just simply be Active Partition.

Let's get together and have a conference and kind of carve it out.

If this was your point of view, what you'd want to

be sure to do is get your troops on the ground.

Get your base there, so that you'd be at the

table when it came time to carve up the cake.

You'd seek agreement with your key rivals, kind of the

rules of the road, as to who would get what.

Here are some cartoons showing just how Western

commentators were seeing China's future around 1899-1900.

In this

French cartoon, China, the cake of kings and emperors.

And you see the British Empress, the German Kaiser,

the French, the Japanese gathered around with their carving knives.

The British are looking over anxiously, the Chinese caricature...concerned.

If we look over at this illustration. This is from an American newspaper.

China's at the gallows being prodded by

the Germans, the French, the Japanese, the British.

Of course, they yell jump and say, yes, but if

you jump the verdict will be that you killed yourself.

Just to show you how advanced this speculation was,

this map actually appeared in a major

newspaper in London, in the summer of 1900,

showing how it was

possible that China would end up getting

carved up: Japanese, Italian, French, British, German, Russian.

By the way, if you don't see an American sphere here, you're right.

Which might help you remember, hm, now I can begin to see

why the Americans would think this sort of thing was a bad idea.

Just so that you see that there is

a cultural and ideological dimension to all this too,

look at this interesting illustration.

This illustration is about the Yellow Peril.

This is not done by some newspaper illustrator for his magazine.

This illustration was commissioned by the German Kaiser, who told Knackfuss,

who put together this little sketch, what he wanted in it.

So here you see the Angel Michael gesturing at the Yellow Peril in the East.

There's now a duty, a duty of all

the civilized governments shown by these allegorical figures,

like France here and Germany here,

to unite together to advance the cause of civilization.

You see the glowing cross against that peril.

That the German emperor would think that

that illustration captured his convictions speaks volumes.

Okay, so, you got the powder keg.

Hear the fuse kind of going

[SOUND]

ready to explode, just as if things could not

get any worse for China, here comes the Boxer Crisis.

Boxer Crisis, what's that?

In the Chinese countryside, a lot of

poor people had organized themselves into militant

societies, with names like the Society of

Harmonious Fists or the Society of Small Swords.

These societies organized a large, popular uprising

Directed, at first, mainly at the foreigners in North China.

North China, that same region where the foreigners are beginning to scramble.

Why does this uprising happen?

This isn't the first popular uprising in the Chinese countryside;

they're endemic. The Qing Empire had dealt with a number of them.

But this one happens to be especially directed at the foreigners.

There had just been another drought,

very hard times in Chinese agriculture.

A lot of hungry people in desperate straits.

And here are all these foreigners, now moving into North China.

Setting up their churches, proselytizing among the

Chinese people, claiming special protections for their converts.

So a lot of the unrest is focused on the

symbols of the West: on churches, on missionaries, on Chinese Christians.

Here's actually one of the few images that actually show Boxers in a photograph.

And here's a contemporary engraving in which

you see Boxers attacking and burning a church.

The rebellion kills hundreds of Westerners and thousands of Chinese Christians.

The foreign powers looked at this and say, well, we're going to have to intervene.

Think now about the Chinese dilemma.

You've got the Boxers

leading a peasant rebellion.

What is the Qing Empire's attitude towards this rebellion?

The Empire is fearful that if they attack the Boxers, the

Boxers and their allies will turn their resentments on the Empire itself,

and they'll have another Taiping Rebellion-style

outbreak that might bring down the Empire altogether.

So the Qing Empire is partly sympathetic with the Boxers,

partly critical, trying to walk a fine line.

Other Chinese notables, like the Yangtze viceroys

further south, are making more common cause with

the British, trying to contain the area of

unrest to those disturbed parts of North China.

So the Chinese are divided among themselves.

But finally, the Dowager Empress and the Qing Empire make the most catastrophic

mistake of all:

they decide to use this rebellion as an

opportunity to align themselves with the common people,

and they declare war on all the Western powers.

Imagine it: the Qing Empire, in this incredibly

vulnerable situation, takes the initiative of declaring war

and literally hands the Western powers all

the possible excuse they could want to launch

a full-scale invasion of China, that can only have bad results.

The Qing Empire then allows its troops to work with

the Boxer rebels to besiege the foreign legations in Peking itself.

These foreign legations basically are huge foreign

outposts of hundreds of people, mostly civilians

but also military people from a number of different

nations, British, German, American, Russian, all

trapped together under siege, under attack.

It's actually quite a remarkable story.

All communication from the foreign legations in Peking is cut off.

For a period of nearly eight weeks, the foreign legations hold out under seige.

In the West, it's reported in the newspapers

that the legations have been overrun, and it's assumed

that all their diplomats have been slaughtered.

In fact, they're still alive,

holding out as a relief expedition is mounted,

what we would now call an international peacekeeping force,

composed of troops of a number of nations, to land at Tientsin and march to Peking

and relieve the besieged legations. That's happening in the summer of 1900.

Here are some of the images produced

at the time as the foreign troops arrive.

This is a Japanese illustration, of course totally romanticized, in

which troops from the different contingents are confronting the Chinese.

Here's another romanticized illustration

this one produced by the Marine Corps,

that shows U.S. Marines gallantly scaling the

walls, planting the American flag, as they help to relieve the siege of Peking.

Indeed, you can even find a Hollywood film on this called

55 days at Peking, with Charlton Heston, David Niven, Eva Gardner.

I can't quite recommend it as a movie, but

it's an interesting glimpse of a version of history.

Interestingly, during the siege, the Yangtze viceroys further south are

working not only with the British but also with the Americans,

getting messages to Secretary of State Hay that the legations

might still be safe

and trying to save China from an all out partition.

Okay, the foreign armies arrive in Peking, they free the legations.

The court of the Qing Empire flees into the Chinese countryside.

China, in effect, lies prostrate at the feet of these victorious foreign powers.

Now what's going to happen?

Postwar negotiations ensued. This is the moment

which John Hayes circulated the second of his famous Open Door Notes.

This is the note in which he emphasizes

his desire to preserve the territorial integrity of China.

Now, it's not that everybody listens to what the Americans have to say about it.

But it is a little bit as if all these foreign powers have gathered in the room

and John Hay, kind of, is looking around

in effect saying: well, you're not thinking of carving

up China are you? You wouldn't want to do that.

And everyone else in the room is going, er, mm,

[LAUGH]

So it slows them down a little bit; there's some confusion.

There is a big push to get the Chinese to pay

a gigantic sum in reparations, which of course, they can't afford,

which will give the foreigners even deeper control over Chinese public finances.

In all of this, it becomes slowly apparent

that the Russians are going to make their move

to really expand their grip over Manchuria.

As the Russian

move becomes more and more apparent, the Americans, who as you

can tell were playing a pretty active role in all of this,

they'd taken part in the relief expedition,

they'd been very active in the diplomacy,

the Americans effectively withdraw. What happens?

Fall of 1900, President McKinley is running for reelection,

American overseas expansion is not, not popular.

And President McKinley

gives the order to pull all the American troops out of China.

He doesn't want them there.

He wants those troops out.

Secretary of State Hays protests; he's overruled, the Americans leave.

They effectively give up their seat at the table at a key point in the fall of 1900.

What then happens is the British and Germans start talking about

whether they can work together to cut some sort of deal.

That effort completely collapses.

The Russian moves, though, become more and more overt.

It becomes apparent that the Russians are really going to play their

hand to try to expand as an outcome of this war.

The Russian move then rallies opposing powers against them.

What happens is the Japanese, who are most threatened by the Russian move,

reach out for other allies. And you know who they find? The British.

They'll form an understanding

with the British that will end up leading to

a formal alliance between the British and the Japanese,

primarily to hold back the advance of Russian military power.

That will actually end up leading to a war between Russia and Japan in 1904 and 1905,

a war that the Japanese substantially win, partly over quarrels as to

who should control certain key parts of China, especially that peninsula and

the port of Port Arthur.

Now, if you look at this slide, you see,

this is, man, this is kind of a complicated story.

These could be chapters of a whole book.

So, why do I go through this in all this detail?

Because the outcome of this story is hugely significant.

China manages to get through this crisis without being carved up.

And if you ask yourself the question: Why?

Why does China survive?

I've tried to show that this is actually

an awfully complicated story when you dig into it,

even though the outcome is extremely important.

Let's think about a few of the key ingredients that stand out.

A few factors that occurred to me

are: there are some constructive Chinese voices,

the hope of future reform represented by some

of the exiled reformers,

even the role that's played by the Yangtze viceroy's during the crisis.

There's also confusion and division among

the foreign powers. And here, the Americans,

I think, had helped play an important part to keep them from having a united front.

And there's also rivalry among the foreigners,

so that finally the British and the Japanese helped combine to slow down

the pace of Russian expansion into

Manchuria and help preserve the Qing Empire,

although neither the British nor the Japanese felt any

particular great stake in the future of that Empire.

They just couldn't yet imagine something else that would take its place.

By the way, in the British case,

they're deeply distracted by a war they're fighting

at the same time against rebels in South Africa, the Boer War,

which also keeps them from giving

the Chinese problem their full imperial attention.

So you step back, you have an enormously

important outcome for the future of world history,

and when you dig into the causes of this, you get into a really intricate policy

story, in which choices are being made by

Chinese, choices are being made by a variety

of different foreigners,

these choices interact to produce a result

that perhaps none of them had cumulatively foreseen.

That's sometimes what history is like.

Next time, we'll talk about how this imperial

fever finally begins to break in the early 1900s.

See you then.

China in the Balance

现代世界，第一部分：1760 年到 1910 年的全球史

与讲师见面