In this installment of our course, I would like to take you on a quick tour of some of the virtues or ethical ideals that are prominently featured in the Analects. This will help, I think, fill out more fully the picture of the Junzi, and therefore, the confusion Dao or Way that we have been discussing. The Confucian exemplary person is devoted to learning as a means of ethical self-cultivation. Starting with family relations, the ethical journey extends outwards to include all relationships. The concept of Ren or humanity captures the basic attitude and heartfelt compassion with which the Junzi approaches all relationships. Li or Proper Conduct is the way in which the humane way of relating to others and nature as well, how that is expressed. And Yi, the Rightness doing what is right, involves a process of deliberation in which the appropriate action, what is just right, how that is determined. In this conceptual ethical world, especially in channeling the humane feelings of the heart towards others in the right way, empathy also plays an important role. At one point, one of the disciples tried to summarize Confucius' teachings in this way. "The way of our Master," he said, "is all about Zhong or conscientiousness and empathy, Shu." Let me perhaps again remind us of the difficulty in interpreting the Analects. What you see now on screen are four different English translations of the same passage. "The way of the Master consists in doing one's best and using oneself as a measure to gauge others," one translation reads. "The way of the Master is doing one's utmost and putting oneself in the other's place." A third translation has this to say, "The Master's way consists of doing one's best to fill one's Humanity and treating others with an awareness that they, too, are alive with Humanity." And finally, look at this, "All that the Master teaches amounts to nothing more than dutifulness tempered by understanding." The Analects, of course, is written in Classical Chinese, which is very different from Modern Chinese. To pinpoint the meaning and nuance of individual concepts is often a challenge even though the general sense may seem apparent. Let us consider the concept of "Shu" first, which I translate rather loosely as empathy. In Modern Chinese, the word "Shu" is often used as a verb meaning to forgive someone or something, or as a noun in the sense of forbearance. Elsewhere in the Analects, the concept of "Shu" is defined explicitly and rather famously as this, "Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire." Or, "Do not do anything to others that you yourself do not wish them to do to you." As you can imagine, this is often compared to the biblical Golden Rule. But leaving the comparison aside, clearly, there is a strong sense of consideration and reciprocity in the concept of "Shu." Literally, the word "Shu" thus suggest using one's own heart as it were as a gauge to understand the feelings and actions of others. But generally, I think, the concept of empathy should manage to convey the basic meaning of Shu. Empathy requires training mentally as well as in behavior. Concept of shu is often used in connection with other ethical norms such as respectfulness and helpful accommodation or yielding or deferring to others. Bully, for example, is unlikely to be able to place himself in the shoes of his victims or understand their feelings. The word "Zhong" is usually defined as loyalty or faithfulness in Modern Chinese. In Confucius' time, however, the term conveys a more basic sense of devoting one's mind and heart entirely to accomplishing something. It may be argued, yes, that the concept of "Zhong" is applied especially to carrying out one's duties. And this is why one of the translators we have cited earlier opted to translate Zhong as dutifulness. Nevertheless, duty may be understood broadly in the context of one's responsibilities and obligations by virtue of our roles in the family and society. And Zhong, in this context, can be construed more generally in the sense of conscientiousness, of doing one's best or utmost in everything that one does. The concept of "Zhong" is often paired with Xin, trustworthiness or living up to one's words. The word "Xin" is used nearly forty times in the Analects, and I think one example should suffice to bring out its importance. In this passage, we find Confucius saying, "If a person lacks trustworthiness, I do not see how he can accomplish anything." Confucius then added an analogy. It would be like a carriage or oxcart without the key pin that holds the yoke together, in which case, of course, the cart won't be able to go anywhere at all. This is but a quick tour, as I said. You may want to dig deeper and ponder over the various statements in the Analects relating to these and other virtues that constitute the ideal Junzi figure. For example, humility and courage are equally important. The point we should emphasize here is that these virtues do not work in isolation. Conceptually, they may be distinct. Empathy and conscientiousness, for example, are conceptually distinct, but in ethical practice, or more precisely, in the ideal Confucian ethical world, they function integrally, and they can all be traced to their roots in Ren, Humanity, and are always mediated by Li, Proper Conduct. The flowering of ethical excellence, one might say, is predicated on the flourishing of the roots of Ren, Yi, and Li which requires steadfast cultivation. Filial affection signals the beginning of Ren, and learning enables a person to be proficient in Li and in making judgments. Through this process, filial love and devotion become a habit of the heart and mind and takes concrete shape in thought and conduct. As we can easily make the connection, empathy and conscientiousness are developed through this process as well. Viewed in this light, one could imagine the ideal Junzi as growing stronger and stronger in ethical character as if his entire being is being filled by a kind of moral energy. This, in fact, is how some later Confucian scholars come to see it, a kind of energy like a vital essence or a substance, called Qi in Chinese, that not only makes biological life possible but also enables the realization of the moral life. The concept of "Qi" has a long history in Chinese philosophy, and we will discuss it more fully in later lectures. At this point, the interconnectedness of virtues should be emphasized. In reading the Analects, as you will encounter discussion of many different virtues, don't think of them as distinct entities. Don't think of them like pieces of chocolates of different flavors in a box. But rather, think of them as different facets of the same chocolate cake, where you will taste Ren and Li in every bite, whether in empathy, conscientiousness, or trustworthiness. The last point I will make in today's discussion is that, ideally, with Ren and Li pervading the entire being of the Junzi, virtuous behavior becomes effortless, as if no deliberation or effort is required, like a kind of aesthetically mesmerizing and enchanting virtuoso ethical performance. This then makes possible the claim that ethical excellence is transformative, influencing not only those who are close to us, but also in principle, the world at large. Let me leave you with a statement from the Analects that we have already cited earlier. "The virtue or moral character of the Junzi is like the wind; the character of a petty person, on the other hand, is like the grass. When the wind blows over the grass, the latter is sure to bend."
