To understand the Dao or vision of Confucius, I have suggested that we focus on the concept of the "Junzi." The first question we need to consider obviously then is what constitutes the ideal Junzi. While there may be many ways to answer this question, I would suggest that the Junzi is first and foremost a true master of Li, a proper conduct which finds expression in structured and repeated social behavior, and in this sense, has the character of ritual action. This may seem surprising. The Junzi is described in the Analects as you will have noticed from your readings, primarily in terms of certain key moral virtues, such as sincerity, courage or filial piety. So, what does Li mean and why is it so important? Generally, one might say that Li is the glue that shapes human behavior and binds society together. Li functions or works like a refining force that helps bring out the best in human beings, and reigning the raw and uncultured. Let's examine this a bit more closely. The word "Li" is usually translated as ritual, rites, R-I-T-E-S, or propriety. What is proper? It is one of the most frequently used terms in the Analects appearing over 70 times, and without question the concept of "Li" is one of the most important in Confucian philosophy as a whole. Let me begin by explaining the etymology of the term, and how its meaning has gone through a significant philosophical extension in the Analects. "Li" originally was a religious term. Its earliest reference seems to be a type of vessel or implement used in the religious sacrifice, and by extension, it was used to denote religious rituals in general. This older meaning is still retained in the Analects and Confucius certainly considers religious rituals to be very important, because they serve to maintain harmonious relations between the human and the divine. But there is also a profound philosophical extension here. It came about, first of all, when attention was shifted from the ritual or the ceremony itself to the performance of it. That is to say, although rituals as such are important, they can achieve their intended outcomes only and only if they are properly performed. And proper performance, what would that entail? Well, proper performance would include the arrangement of the ritual tools, the correct positioning of the officiating group, for example, the proper sequence of actions, the proper costumes, and so on. All these would be very important. But one thing is still missing. The performance of ritual must be done not only in the right way but also with the proper attitude. For example, you can't really be cursing your ancestors under your breath while outwardly performing an ancestral rite. Even beyond that, there is still one more step in this extension of meaning of Li. As in the case of the concept of the "Junzi," there is also an ethical transformation of the concept of "Li" in Confucian philosophy. That is, from the proper way, one should behave in ritual ceremonies. Li is now also extended further to mean proper conduct in general. What Confucius did with the concept of "Li" was to liberate it, if you like, from the confines of the religious, and bring it into the realm of everyday life. Proper ritual action is important in ordinary social interaction, from simple greetings to giving up your seat in a bus, to important rites of passage, Li pervades every aspect of social life. For this reason, some translators prefer to translate Li as propriety or rules of propriety, and not just as rituals or rites, so as to bring out this wider meaning of Li. This is an important innovation in the history of Chinese philosophy. The religious sense is still retained in some modern Chinese expressions. For example, but don't worry if you do not know the Chinese language, but just for example, worship in Chinese is called "Libai," which literally conveys the ritual of paying obeisance. You can actually visualize it this way, or on the other hand, manners in Chinese is "Limao," which gives the sense of proper expressions in everything one does. Li is so common that we seldom think about it, but the significance of Li in everyday life can hardly be overstated from simple bowing, or other forms of greetings to elaborate ritual ceremonies such as marriage and funerals, Li helps define living Chinese culture. Now, obviously Li so understood is not limited to Chinese culture, rather, it is common to all cultures. A simple handshake, for example, is a form of Li but probably few traditions have emphasized the importance of Li to the same extent as the Confucian tradition, and because of his influence, Li is particularly emphasized in Asian cultures. If you have lived in Japan, for example, you would know how important the ritual of bowing is, and you might even have had the experience of bowing even while talking to someone over the telephone. Philosophically, Li serves both a regulative function and a constitutive function. Li as proper structured and guided conduct is regulative in the sense that it helps to organise social interaction as well as to set the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. It acts as a key element in the socialisation process, and serves to minimize conflicts and enhance social harmony. Think of a simple act. A simple act like thanking someone. Its significance really goes beyond that of a single act, but sets the context of harmonious social interaction. In the absence of Li, social life would be a lot more difficult and contentious. The regulative the function of Li is almost magical. As the American philosopher Herbert Fingarette puts it in his influential study of Confucian philosophy which is on our recommended reading list, with seemingly no effort at all. In giving way to someone, for example, or holding a door open for someone, so much can be accomplished. Now, pause for a moment, try to think of a couple of examples of Li in everyday life, and try to work out the impact on social harmony. Inconsequential as little acts of Li may seem, they play a large role in the management of human complexities. Li also serves a constitutive function, in the sense that repeated practice comes to shape behavior so much so that it flows out almost instinctively like natural responses, and in this way helps to define who we are. Li refers not only to how we act in other words, but also the kind of person we become. Think again of simple examples of Li in everyday life and share with your peers in your own words. Why you think Li plays such an important role in Confucian ethics. We'll come back to the concept of "Li" in our next meeting.
