Assessment and Pathology

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人体生理学导论

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Duke University

人体生理学导论

1742 个评分

In this course, students learn to recognize and to apply the basic concepts that govern integrated body function (as an intact organism) in the body's nine organ systems.

从本节课中

Homeostasis and Endocrine System

Welcome to Module 2 of Introductory Human Physiology! We begin our study of the human body with an overview of the basic concepts that underlie the functions of cells and organs within the body and their integration to maintain life. This is an important introduction to how physiologists view the body. We will return to these basic concepts again as we progress through the organs systems and consider how they respond to perturbations incurred in daily functions and in disease. The things to do this week are to watch the 6 videos, to answer the in-video questions, to read the notes for each topic, and to complete two problem sets (homeostasis, transporters & channels, and endocrine concepts). It will be most effective if you follow the sequence of videos. The notes provide a more detailed summary of each topic. We encourage you to find which resource (videos and/or notes) works best for you.We have included a set of problems to be completed as homework exercises. We strongly encourage you to complete these problems sets. They are not graded and are for your personal feedback. It has been our experience that these exercises are helpful in increasing understanding and retention of the newly learned materials.Please use the interactive forum as a means to exchange ideas, to ask questions, to form study groups and interest groups, and to meet your community. We will monitor the forum daily.Thank you for joining us. We are excited about sharing this educational experience with you. Welcome!

General Concepts28:07

Assessment and Pathology13:05

与讲师见面

Jennifer Carbrey
Assistant Research Professor
Department of Cell Biology
Emma Jakoi
Associate Research Professor
Department of Cell Biology

Welcome, so today we wanna continue our discussion of the Endocrine systems.

The general concepts of the Endocrine systems.

And today we wanna talk about two specific things that is

the assessment of the system and its pathology.

The way you classify the pathology.

So first we wanna explain then the principles and

the limitations of how we measure the hormones.

And this is done in two ways.

One is by actually quantitating them and secondly asking whether or

not they're active.

And then secondly we wanna to explain classification

of these endocrine pathologies.

So assessment of functions.

So as we said the last time we were in here, that if we have too much hormone.

That we have a hyper secretion of the hormone.

We have hormone excess.

And the problem with the situation is that you can have down regulation

of the target cell receptor.

So we could desensitize the system.

So that it's not recognizing and that it's not giving us the biological activity.

Or we could have a really really strong response.

And so we have an over response to the amount of hormone that's being available.

The second was that we have too little concentration of the hormone,

we have hypo secretion of the hormone.

And this would be hormone insufficiency,

where not enough of the receptors on the target cells are occupied.

And we don't get the biological effect that we need, or

the biological response that we need.

And then we said we could also have target cell resistance.

And this is a problem where the receptors on the target cells are unresponsive.

And they could be unresponsive because they're uncoupled.

So they're still present on the cell surface.

This is what we see with Diabetes Type 2 Individuals often.

Or we have the receptors actually removed or degraded.

So it's not even present on the cell surface.

And then just right is a normal or eu-secretion.

And that's where the hormone, the endocrine system is working correctly.

So we have two assays for measuring our hormones.

And one of them is called competitive binding assay.

And remember that the hormones are a very,

very small concentrations within the blood.

So we have to have a very sensitive assay to find the amount of hormone,

that's within our sample.

And to do this we use a specific antibody.

So this antibody then recognizes the hormone.

And we have in our system, in the assay, we put in a labelled hormone.

So we have a known amount of labelled hormone

that would bind up all of the antibody that's within the system.

We mix this with a hormone that's from our patient or from the unknown.

We don't know the amount of hormone that's here, so this is our x amount.

We mix this then with the known or labeled hormone and our antibody.

And then assay for how much of the labeled hormone has been brought down.

And the unlabeled hormones should compete a finite amount of the labeled hormone.

And then by subtraction we know how much should have come down.

By subtraction we can figure out how much of the unlabeled hormone we have

present in the sample.

So this is high sensitivity because of the antibody and

is high specificity because of the antibody.

But it doesn't tell you if the hormone is active.

So when could this give us a false reading?

So let's say you have an individual who presents as if they are a diabetic type I.

These individuals have very high circulating levels of plasma glucose.

Yes, high circulating of plasma glucose, but when you assay for

the insulin in their bloodstream.

You find that insulin is also present.

So by this competitive binding assay, the insulin is present.

So the question is, is the insulin they're making functional?

So the way you test that,

would be that you give this individual some insulin that you know is functional.

And see whether or

not the amount of glucose that;s circulating in the plasma, will decrease.

If it does, then you know that the insulin that the individual is making,

is making an insulin that's not reactive.

It can not bind to the receptor, or it has some problem in its structure.

So we have to have a second assay then which tells us whether or

not our hormone is functional.

These are called bioassays.

So what I've diagrammed here is a complex

negative feedback loop of one of the hormones.

That we'll talk about later on in the course.

But this particular hormone is cortisol and it's secreted by the adrenal gland.

This hormone is secreted in response to low plasma glucose.

So we have low plasma glucose, then the hypothalamus.

Which is an area of your brain, will secrete a hormone called CRH,

or corticotropin.

This hormone binds to a second area of the brain called the anterior pituitary

to secrete ACTH, adrenal cortocotrophine.

This hormone works on the adrenal cortex to cause secretion of cortisol.

So that's our regular stimulation of the cortisol from the adrenal gland.

Cortisol happens to be a steroid hormone so

it takes about 30 to 60 minutes before cortisol will rise in the blood.

And the reason for the delay is that cortisol is

a steroid derivative so it has to be synthesized on demand.

And then cortisol is secreted into the blood and binds to a carrier and

then is delivered to its target tissue.

The cortisol will feed back in a negative manner.

To turn off the secretion from the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus.

This is a complex negative feedback loop.

That we saw when we were talking about homeostatic controls in the first lecture.

So what happens if the cortisol that's in particular individual is very very high.

So we have very high level of cortisol, and

because we have high level of cortisol.

We will actually have very high levels of plasma glucose.

And the individual is coming in to the physician's office.

Because of the symptoms that this very high cortisol is causing within his body.

So, this high cortisol should have fed back and turned off ACTH and

turned off CRH.

But it doesn't seem to be, it's too high.

So the question is do we have a tumor that's making this cortisol, or

do we have too much of this ACTH.

Which is pushing the synthesis of this cortisol.

So is the problem occurring here, at the ACTH level, or

is the problem occurring here at the cortisol level, at the adrenal itself.

So to test this axis then, we run a suppression test.

And this is, that we give a drug called dexamethasone,

which inhibits the synthesis of ACTH by pituitary cells.

When we give this drug, if we administer the drug, the ACTH levels should fall.

And when the ACTH level should fall, then the cortisol levels should also fall.

So, if we had a very high amount of ACTH, then we've turned off the ACTH,

the cortisol should fall.

If the cortisol does not fall under these conditions.

Then the question is whether or not the ACTH has gone down, and

you can then assay for the ACTH.

If on the other hand, the cortisol does fall and the ACTH,

let's say the ACTH under those circumstances did fall.

But that the cortisol stayed high,

that would tell you that there's a problem with the adrenal glands.

Or that there's a problem with a tumor someplace in the body

that's secreting cortisol.

That's not under the regulation of ACTH.

So this is a way then that we can sort of parse

the axis to find out exactly where in the axis our problem lies.

Let's look at a case where we have the opposite.

Where we have low cortisol, we have low cortisol levels.

The hypothalamus secretes CRH due to the low plasma glucose.

And we should have a CTH, but we have low cortisol.

We can give this individual ACTH, so exogenose ACTH to push the axis.

To see whether or not the adrenal is working.

And when we do that then the cortisol levels should rise.

We wait 30 to 60 minutes and we should see rise in cortisol.

If the gland, the adrenal gland is working correctly,

then the exogenous ACTH should correct this situation.

We should see a rise in cortisol.

That then tells us that there was a problem with the anterior pituitary,

that it was not secreting ACTH correctly.

Or there may have been a problem with the CRH,

which is then there's a decrease in the ACTH.

So at that level then, you would have to go back and

look to see whether ACTH and CRH levels are appropriate.

So how do you classify these endocrine pathologies?

So the endocrine pathologies then in this situation where we have this complex

negative feedback loop.

We have a primary pathology if the last endocrine organ is not working correctly.

So in our case we had low cortisol.

And that endocrine organ was the adrenal cortex.

If we have low cortisol, what we should have seen if the problem is sitting here.

Then what we should have seen is that ACTH levels would be high and

CRH levels would be high.

That the system would be trying to push to get an increase in the cortisol.

On the other hand and

we don't have a negative feedback loop to decrease the ACTH or the CRH.

Because the cortisol level is low.

If the problem was secondary then we'd have a low cortisol but

we would also have a low ACTH.

The ACTH is the problem, and

that means that the problem is sitting here at the pituitary.

The CRH then could be high because the CRH is trying to push the ACTH.

But the ACTH is not being secreted correctly, it's low and

therefore cortisol is low.

That would be classified as a secondary pathology.

And if the problem is occurring at the level of the hypothalamus then this is

a tertiary problem.

Where we have low cortisol, we will have low ACTH, we will have low CRH.

The entire axis is down-regulated.

And the entire axis is down-regulated, we are missing CRH.

In these individuals then the individual can be given ACTH.

By giving them ACTH we then can move the cortisol levels up.

Because the adrenal gland was working correctly.

So these pathologies then as you're looking through these different problems.

And we wanna see whether not, what these different pathologies are.

And to be able to classify at what level the pathology is occurring.

This is a misspelling.

So one of our general concepts, then, first of all we have,

pathology and endocrinology.

Occurs when there is either too little or too much hormone.

Or we have a resistance to the hormone due to a receptor dysfunction.

And secondly, we can interpret the hormone levels.

And as we're interpreting the hormone levels,

we have to consider the trophic hormones that are above it.

And or the level of the nutrients which are controlled by the hormone.

And so in the case of the complex negative feedback loop.

We have to consider all of the hormones.

Which are within that negative feedback loop as to whether or

not they may be the problem.

And you start with the primary and then work backwards.

But you have assays where you can assay the amount.

For instance, we could assay the amount of ACTH.

We can assay the amount of cortisol.

But you start with assaying the amount of cortisol.

And then go back and see whether or not there was a problem with the ACTH.

So I hope this makes sense to everybody.

You should go ahead and try the problem sets.

Because this will allow you to apply

what you've learned from these various concepts in endocrinology.

Two actual cases and see whether or not you can think through these cases.

Okay, so see you next time.

Bye bye.

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