So here we are again back with Lecture 12, third century AD, the years of crisis. And I'm here with my cocker spaniel, Lana. Are you gonna be listening today? Lana's been enjoying the lectures so far. I just wanted to point out we were originally gonna name her Stay. And not Lana, we were gonna call her Stay, but it really traumatized her. We kept saying, come here, stay. Come here, stay. She didn't like it, did you? It's the reaction my students get when I do this course live. Okay, come on down. The third century CE was a time of constant crises for the Roman Empire as emperors were made and unmade at an alarming rate. The economy experienced grave difficulties and the military organization and troop loyalty to Rome degenerated into individual leaders with their own often violent followings. Peoples at the extreme edges of the Roman world were emboldened by the corruption and chaos in Rome to make their own attacks along the frontier. Forcing the Romans to deplete one area, in order to save another. To deal with numerous troop mutinies, to make undesirable treaties, and to hire mercenaries to defend the empire. During this period, Rome was becoming less and less important in the overall scheme of empire. And it became necessary to establishe several other centers in the North and East. In order to keep a hand in the conflicts of the time. The stability of the Severan dynasty was undermined by the ruthless rule of Caracalla, who murdered his own brother to consolidate his power after 211 CE, but who found himself facing a mounting Parthian threat in the area of what is now Iran. Caracalla is best remembered for completing the enormous baths that bear his name in southern Rome. And, indeed, in a city of well over a million people, supplying water, keeping clean and disposing of waste was a big problem. How did they manage to do it? Well, let's have a brief look.